Impact of Smoking During Pregnancy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Impact of Smoking During Pregnancy - Assignment Example Even though it is widely understood that tobacco products, specifically smoking them, can create negative impacts upon a pregnancy, relatively little inquiry has been devoted towards the impacts of smoking marijuana during pregnancy. For purposes of this particular study, the analysts sought to measure these two against one another; utilizing a series of metrics as a function of accomplishing such a goal. As denoted above, the problem investigated was contingent upon the potential harm that smoking of either tobacco products or marijuana during pregnancy could affect. Likewise, the core problems investigated was with regard to how tobacco and/or marijuana usage during pregnancy impacted upon gestation, growth, and morphology. By seeking to draw inference on these core issues, the researchers pre-supposed that a greater level of understanding concerning the impacts of smoking either of these substances during pregnancy could be compared to existing research; assisting in the creation of a more baseline understanding of the negative of neutral health effects that such a practice entails. The problem is of extreme importance as healthealthcareessionals are faced with the negative impacts of such issues each and every day and need verifiable measurements and statistics that they can use to warn their patients. The underlying purpose of the study is to of course provide more identifiable metrics with respect to the negative health impacts that smoking either marijuana for tobacco products during pregnancy can affect.  

Chapter 4) Demanding Ethical and Socially Responsible Behavior Assignment

Chapter 4) Demanding Ethical and Socially Responsible Behavior - Assignment Example This negative ethical implication leads to a revenge mission on the part of the affected parties and the whistleblower(s) have to relocate or even at times go into witness protection program to protect them from revenge by wounded corporations and employers. These rewards are ethical because they are just a token of appreciation by the SEC for the ultimate unveiling of the crimes taking place in the corporations and they save the country millions if not billions of dollars as well as prevent the citizens from being defrauded anymore like in the Ponzi schemes. By blowing the whistle, the whistle blower has conducted an honorary thing but may be out of job and not easily get another job. Their life may also be in danger from those who were not happy to be unveiled. The money will therefore cushion their future for a while before they stabilize or even forever depending on how much it

The nature and nurture debate Essay Example for Free

The nature and nurture debate Essay Development in children: At meantime, Nurture refers to the environment that we are surrounded by. We also have evidence shown a significant impact on the influence to a child from its parents or other family members. For instance, a child who is grow up in an emotional sensitivity family is more likely to accept the same values than who was grow up in a suppress family environment. For all these reasons, we cannot disaffirm that nurture also play an important role in humans emotional development. Children need to be nurtured: they need love and support from parents, siblings, extended family, teachers, peers, and other people important in their lives. Children can be greatly affected by how these important people nurture them. Other elements of nurture include a childs economic and sociocultural environments. Poverty, malnutrition, and a lack of adequate medical care can alter a childs developmental path. Cultural heritage and diversity can enrich a childs life, and the neighbourhood where the child lives can determine the schools and peer groups that a child will have.Nature relates to biological and chemical properties of the human being. Sometimes, the short of or high levels of some specific hormone can markedly affect our emotional development. For instance, we have lots of studies shown that a high level of testosterone can let someones character become more courageous and aggressive, where else extreme amounts of estrogen will lead to a sensitivity and emotional character. All of these are an approach to nature affect the development of emotion. Relationships are the way babies come to know the world and their place in it. They provide the loving context necessary to comfort, protect, encourage, and offer a buffer against stressful times. It is through relationships that young children develop social emotional wellness, which includes the ability to form satisfying relationships with others, play, communicate, learn, face challenges, and experience emotions. In addition, nurturing relationships are crucial for the development of trust, empathy, compassion, generosity, and conscience. Parents are the keys to intellectual development for almost all children in the care and education they provide and arrange. â€Å"Many research studies underscore the links between parental involvement and young childrens intelligence† (nature vs. nurture, 19/11/2014). By the time a child turns two, many of the intellectual foundations will have been laid to support a lifetime of learning. A childs intelligence is being shaped, challenged, and expressed every day by experiences with people, objects, and events, especially when they are an active participant. These experiences are the raw ingredients of intelligence. In traditional society most parents encourage their kids to take part in extracurricular activities like learning music, dance or sports in accordance with the child’s talents and interests. The talents have been given by nature but they can only be developed into skills through the hard work of nurture. Development in adulthood: Their development is affected to make social skills as well as meet new people to socialize with this will affect them later on in life, getting into relationships as well as socializing with individuals at work places etc. Nurture Effects Physical development there are several of physical effects of nurture on adolescence. A number of them tend to follow their friends for instance, if they see their friends taking drugs they get influenced and end up doing the same. The physical effects of drugs, smoking, alcohol etc. are; respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, coronary heart diseases, dry skin etc. Intellectual development a consequence on adolescence through nature reduces their thinking level. Their capability to reflect logically reduces. Smoking as well as drinking throughout adolescent years does tend to have an effect on the brain which does affect their understanding enormously. For instance, smoking decreases mental ability as oxygen supply also decreases. Therefore they do also tend to have lack of concentration this is caused by their attention span it goes lower and all this is caused by smoking. Some smokers that are addicted to the substances end up having a slow brain and this affects their thinking, speech as well as communication speed, as the brain is still developing at this stage smoking as well as taking other drugs can easily cause mental  health issues for instance, poor decision-making skills, Environmental factors involve many dimensions. They include both physical environments and social environments (such as the neighbourhood, media and peer pressure.) Also, environmental factors have different levels of impact on human development as they involve multiple layers of action, ranging from most immediate families, friends, and neighbourhoods) to bigger societal contexts (school systems and local governments) as well as macro factors such as politics on the international level or say global warming. These layers are also impacted by other factors outside them. Exposed to not just peer pressure from their peers but also to parental ideals, community standards or ethnic views. Nature is responsible for the growth of a person from the foetus level until development into a normal adult. The genetic makeup of a human being is responsible for their sex, skin colour, colour of their eyes and hair as well as distinguishing features which are inherited. Nature can only assist in the growth of a foetus into a normal well-develope d adult who may have inherited some special talents. Thus it can be concluded that nature uses the genetic coding to help in physical development and does impart some positive or negative traits to an individual However, it is nurture which can be utilized to improve positive traits and diminish the effect of negative traits in a child.† Several recent studies carried out on infant and child behaviour have shown that there is significant evidence to support the fact that nurture strongly influences human development especially in the early years.†(how does nature and nurture influence human development, 19/11/2014) â€Å"Young adults score higher on tests of fluid intelligence†(23/11/2014), which is the ability to think abstractly and deal with novel situations, while middle adults improve over time on tests of crystallized intelligence, which involves using learned information collected throughout a life span. In summary, the results of traditional IQ tests imply that intelligence continues at approximately the same level at least into middle adulthood, and probably beyond. Middle†age adult thinking differs significantly from that of adolescents and young adults. Adults are typically more focused in specific directions, having gained insight and understanding from life events that adolescents and young adults have not yet experienced. No longer viewing the world from an absolute and fixed perspective, middle adults have learned how to make compromises, question  the establishment, and work through disputes. Younger people, on the hand, may still look for definitive answers. Many middle†age adults have attained Piagets stage of formal operations, which is characterized by the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and solve theoretical problems. Many of the situations facing adults today require something more than formal operations. That is, the uncertain areas of life may pose problems too ambiguous and inconsistent for such straightforward thinking styles. Instead, middle adults may develop and employ post formal thinking, which is characterized by the objective use of practical common sense to deal with unclear problems. An example of post formal thinking is the middle adult who knows from experience how to manoeuvre through rules and regulations and play the system at the office. Another example is the middle adult who accepts the reality of contradictions in his or her religion, as opposed to the adolescent who expects a concrete truth in an infallible set of religious doctrines and rules. Post formal thinking begins late in adolescence and culminates in the practical wisdom so often associated with older adulthood. â€Å"Scholars have long studied twins to address the nature nurture question. Identical twins separated at birth and brought up in separate environments provide the ideal test cases, but such cases are exceedingly difficult to find†(traditional twin studies,2014). Instead, most researchers study twins who have grown up together and carefully compare the experiences of identical twins to those of fraternal twins. Since identical twins are monozygotic, developed from a single sper m fertilizing a single egg, which then divides into two separate cell masses within the first two weeks of development, these twins are essentially clones. Fraternal twins, on the other hand, are dizygotic, developed when two eggs are each separately fertilized by different sperm. Identical twins fraternal twins have, on average, half their genes in common, as do any two full siblings. Comparing identical and fraternal twins enables researchers to separate genetic from environmental influences without measuring genes directly. If a physical or behavioural trait, like hair colour or success at math, is shared more often by identical twins than by fraternal twins, researchers reason, genes must have played a role in developing the trait. Twin and related studies provide most of the evidence that Genes determine human traits and behaviours. For example, schizophrenia runs in families. Twin  studies show that when one twin in an identical pair suffers from schizophrenia, the chance that the other twin will be schizophrenic is about one in two; it is only one in six for fraternal twins. This gap is evidence for the existence of a genetic tendency toward schizophrenia. Similar evidence suggests that genes influence such traits and behaviours as height, weight, manic-depressive psychosis, alcoholism, and cognitive development, reading skills, parenting style, rate of accident occurrence in childhood, television-viewing habits, peer-group selection, and timing of first sexual intercourse, marital disruption, and educational and economic attainment. Traditional twin study designs rely on two assumptions, both of which have prompted criticism. First, the equal environments assumption states that the environments of identical twins are no more similar than the environments of fraternal twins. However, if the experiences of identical twins are more similar, genetic influences would be overestimated. Critics note that identical twins tend to be treated more alike than fraternal twins and suspect that this greater environmental Similarity may explain the greater trait similarity of identical twins. For example, identical twins are probably more often dressed alike than fraternal twins. If being treated identically, in dressing for instance, makes identical twins more similar than fraternal twins, we could mistakenly attribute effects to genes that are really due to differences in treatment. Maturation theory: â€Å"Basically, this theory maintains that children mature as they grow older and personalities and temperament will be reveals with little influence from the surrounding environment† (children’s medical services,(23/11/2014) . Through his research, Arnold Gesell developed some of the first milestones that children should meet. These milestones are called the Gesell developmental schedules. This was the beginning on the idea that children development happens in stages. The Gesell developmental schedule was able to compare a children’s development to the standard norm. The norm was established through extensive studies of children. The schedule is supposed to be able to give a measure of possible intelligence. Children who how early development were likely to have high intelligence according to schedule. The schedule has fallen out of favour in regards to studying intelligence over  the years. There is not enough proof to show that the schedules accurately measure intelligence over the years. The scale is used to this day to measure an infant’s intellectual development in which the infant may have developmental issues. The Arnolds Gesell theory of a child development also has roots in the study of evolution of genetics. Arnold Gesell believed that child development was mostly biological, not environmental. According to Gesell, a stable environment is important to a child, but only so that they can develop naturally according to their genetics. This idea that children develop only according to their biology is called the Gesell maturational theory. According to Gesell’s maturation theory, a child or teenager will develop only according to what they have programmed in their genetics. A stable, nurturing environment helps this along by encouraging growth, much as fertile soil helps a plant grow and develop. References: Nature vs. nurture,(19/11/2014) How much influence do you have on your baby’s intelligence, available at: http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=1044 (accessed: 19/11/2014) How nature and nurture influence human development,(19/11/14) the ongoing debate, available at : http://www.brighthub.com/science/genetics/articles/110288.aspx (accessed:19/11/14) Traditional twin studies, (21,11,2014) twin studies ,what can they tell us about nature/nurture? Available at: http://www.unc.edu/~gguo/papers/05%20twin%20studies%20Contexts.pdf (accessed:23/11/2014) Intellectual development : age 45-65, (14/11/2014) available at: http://www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/psychology/development-psychology/physical-cognitive-development-4565/intellectual-development-age-4565 (accessed : 23/11/2014)

Organizational Culture And Leadership Styles Education Essay

Organizational Culture And Leadership Styles Education Essay Human learning in the 21st century will be as different from human learning in the 20th century as the micro-chip and neural networks are from the valve. (Lepani,1994, p. 3). In this century the scope and pace of change seem to be accelerating in all areas of human existence. We have to move with it or ahead of it if we are not to be left behind. Academic institutions are feeling this tidal wave of change in ways that have left many educators consciously or otherwise confused, exhausted and disillusioned. (Deal, 1990, p.131) Change can be seen as evolutionary and dynamic with an emphasis on continuous learning and adaptation (Dixon, 1994; Fullan, 1991; Fullan and Miles, 1992). The challenge for academic institutions is to adopt change strategies that provide internal stability while moving ahead. This challenge may be able to be met in education and elsewhere by focusing on a change strategy where learning comes to be seen as the single most important resource for organizational re newal in the postmodern age (Hargreaves, 1995). The nations that lead the world into the next century will be those who can shift from being knowledge transformational bodies to those that will have the capacity to possess, renew and utilize knowledge successfully. The major issue that confronts educators is whether or not we can transform education and create academic institutions that can successfully prepare our nations students for life. This process calls for leadership at all levels, a good school culture and personal commitment of those who are responsible for these institutions. They must take the time to seriously consider the kinds of changes that are needed. They have to address the needs of students and teachers and then a fundamental transformation of education could happen. There are many routes for organizational development through change, which can be used to improve an organizations quality. Learning organization models provide one administrative method that can be used to provide direction for organizational achievement for both public and private organizations (Makasarnont, 1997). As Hoy and Miskel (2001) state, academic institutions are service organizations that are committed to teaching and learning. The academic institutions functions as a learning organization in order to continue to improve performance and build capacity to manage change (Corcoran and Goertz, 1995) in an environment where academic institutions are becoming increasingly borderless. Conceptualizing academic institutions as learning organizations is appropriate, given the new challenges of a fast-changing world. To be relevant in a knowledge society, new skills, capabilities and knowledge are required. The focus of each academic institution should therefore fall on the enhancement of individual commitments to continuous learning by creation of an enabling enterpreutionial culture and transformational leaders for the development and growth of academic institutions as Learning Organizations. Teachers have to be awake to these changes and must try to improve their skills all the time. They cannot stop their learning simply because they have graduated from school or the university and have been employed; if they would like to be successful, they must grow. They have to keep on learning from their experiences, environment, or their organization. As Lassey (1998) shows successful people are people who learn. Without learning, there is no improvement; and without improv ement the institutions stagnate. The institutions should be places where participants continually expand their capacities to create and to achieve. If academic institutions are to be effective learning organizations, they must find ways to create structures that continuously support teaching and learning and enhance organizational adaptation. Therefore the learning organization is the important thing that an administrator has to create in her/his school in order to give leaders, teachers and students an opportunity for learning continuously, based on the belief that the more people learn, the better they can perform when they go on in life. Need for the Study Many academic institutions are struggling to meet the requirements for academic performance. In this study academic institutions is narrowed down to only schools, as they are base in the description of an academic institution. Despite numerous promising initiatives from the government to promote student success in schools, overall gains in student performance have been disappointing. Some commentators have suggested that nothing less than a fundamental redesign of the educational system will begin to address the hurdles faced by students in succeeding at school (Boyd Shouse, 1997). Coleman (1997) noted that the highly bureaucratic nature of Government schools stifles creative problem solving and blocks receptivity to large-scale and transformative system reform. He described schools as administratively driven organizations with long feedback loops from the top of the organization (for example, the principal) to component subsystems (for example, teachers and students). Coleman consi dered schools with decentralized authority structures and norms of accountability and social support, which he labels as output-driven organizations, as having more promise than ones with traditional bureaucratic forms for increasing teacher and student performance. With growing concerns about the ability of the public education system to respond to the needs of students (Orfield et al., 2004), many voices in the school reform movement have discussed the need for schools to operate as learning organizations, which addresses the importance of faculty and staff working together to solve problems through networking and team learning (Senge et al., 2000). The degree to which schools function as learning organizations may not only influence the willingness of school employees to embrace new innovations for promoting student achievement, but also their personal well-being, their sense of efficacy in working with students, their work satisfaction, and their evaluation of the school as a hi gh-performing organization. A burgeoning number of empirical investigations offer support for these types of positive effects from schools functioning as learning organizations (Lick, 2006; Orthner et al., 2006). I believe that understanding schools as learning organizations offers the potential to unlock the creative and dynamic processes that schools require to undergo fundamental and significant change initiatives. Only then do we believe that schools will begin to address the challenges they face in educating children and youths and in closing the significant gaps in educational achievement and life success. The phenomenon known as the learning organisations has during the past three decades been discussed widely in the literature (Khadra Rawabdeh, 2006; Moilanen, 2001, 2005; Hawkins, 1991; Watkins Marsick, 1993; Senge, 1990; Pedler, Burgoyne Boydell, 1991). Unfortunately, the concept of the learning organization remains abstract and elusive for many school level practitioners, which reflects, in part, a strong leaning toward a constructivist approach in the study of organizational learning. School personnel also have relatively few tools available to examine this aspect of their schools, and assessment is the first step in the evidence-based practice planning sequence. During the past century much has been learned about how the brain works and how students learn. We have also learned that how schools can be organized in what that can enhance the quality of learning that students experience and we know a great deal about the kinds of conditions that are necessary for change to occur. The issue in Indian Educational system is to find a way to create the conditions that will encourage the learning organization concept which is needed to transform Indian academic organizations. What is also clear is that leadership is a critical component of the transformation of education. However, the kind of leadership that is needed is fundamentally different than what has traditionally been the case. Leaders must be able to transform their academic institutions. This has been widely discussed the literature (Jones Rudd, 2007; Reed, 2006; Bartling Bartlett, 2005; CASEL, 2006; Bamburg, 1997; West, 1999; Telford, 1996; Barnett, Marsh Carven, 2003; Stander Rothman n, 2009) and hence the inclusion of this as a variable in this study. As small schools become more autonomous, they create new identities and establish unique school cultures. It is also believed that the schools culture is inextricably linked to classroom culture. Many researchers have explored the challenges of building school culture (Silver, 2003; Zilwa, 2007; Ferreira Hill, 2008; Niemann Kotzà ©, 2006; Thomas Willcoxson, 1998; Raywid, 2001;). The researches explore various approaches to the issue of organizational culture, including techniques from the business world, the connection to physical spaces, and the use of traditions (Berg Wilderom, 2004; Fard.et.al, 2007;). A schools culture includes the obvious elements of schedules, curriculum, demographics, and policies, as well as the social interactions that occur within those structures and give a school its look and feel as friendly, elite, competitive, inclusive, and so on. Just as culture is critical to understanding the dynamics behind any thriving community, organization, or business, t he daily realities and deep structure of school life hold the key to educational success. Reforms that strive for educational excellence are likely to fail unless they are meaningfully linked to the schools unique culture and hence the inclusion of this variable in this study. Teachers play an important role in the success of any school. The personal commitment of the teacher has a very strong influence in the smooth functioning of the school and the school to develop into a learning organization. Personal commitment could be commitment for ones own development and commitment for the development of the school and students. Research on commitment has generally focused on either the antecedents or the consequences of commitment. Early studies of commitment explored the antecedents of commitment and found four general antecedents, namely: personal characteristics, job characteristics, work experiences, and role-related characteristics (Mathieu and Hamel 1989; Mowday, Porter and Steers 1982). Some of the earlier studies also explored the role played by demographic variables on commitment. The demographic variables found to have influence on commitment are: age (Mathieu and Zajac 1990), organizational tenure (Mathieu and Hamel 1989), position tenure (Gregersen and Black 1992), and education (DeCotiis and Summers 1987). Furthermore, Glisson and Durick (1988) identified skill variety and role ambiguity as predictors of satisfaction and leadership, and the age of the organization as predictor of commitment. The impact of commitment on organizational level outcomes has also been explored in a number of studies. However, it is the consequence of affective commitment which is more often studied in the literature. This is because high levels of affective commitment are shown to be related to a number of positive behavioral level outcomes and job attitudes (Hislop 2003; Cooper-Hakim and Viswesvaran 2005). Further Organizational commitment and professional commitment of teachers in schools have been researched on (Sood Anand, 2009; Karakus Aslan, 2009; Weber, 1990; Coladarci, 1992; Menep. I, 2010; Iqbal, 2010; Borgei. et.al, 2010;). Although the study of commitment has been advanced from a range of theoretical perspectives, it is interesting to note that very few attempts have been made by researchers to work on personal commitment. The belief is that an understanding of the relationship between leadership, culture and commitment is necessary. As a teacher educator I think that personal com mitment of teachers is very important in transforming schools into a learning organization and no researches have been done in this area, hence the inclusion of the variable in this study. Conceptual Framework Schools as Learning Organization To present a theoretical framework in which the school as learning organization can be grounded, the study is using The learning disciplines (Senge et al., 1996:4). According to Peter Senge (1990: 3) learning organizations are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to see the whole together. While all people have the capacity to learn, the structures in which they have to function are often not conducive to reflection and engagement. Furthermore, people may lack the tools and guiding ideas to make sense of the situations they face. Organizations that are continually expanding their capacity to create their future require a fundamental shift of mind among their members.  For Peter Senge, real learning gets to the heart of what it is to be human. We become able to re -create ourselves. This applies to both individuals and organizations. Thus, for a learning organization it is not enough to survive. Survival learning or what is more often termed adaptive learning is important indeed it is necessary. But for a learning organization, adaptive learning must be joined by generative learning, learning that enhances our capacity to create (Senge 1990:14). The dimension that distinguishes learning from more traditional organizations is the mastery of certain basic disciplines or component technologies. The five that Peter Senge identifies are said to be converging to innovate learning organizations. They are: Systems thinking, Personal mastery, Mental models, Building shared vision Team learning Personal mastery According to Senge et al. (1996:194) the term mastery evolved from the medieval French, maitre, which meant someone who was exceptionally proficient and skilled a master of a craft. Maitre as it is used today means the capacity, not only to produce results, but also to master the principles that underpin the way an individual produces those results. Mastery is a commitment to be the best in whatever is done (Secretan, 1997:54). Educators who strive to become masters of their craft are often those who would be described as being committed to their work in their respective schools. According to Zecha (1994:6) and Kushman (1992:6), there are two types of educator commitment, namely organizational commitment and commitment to student learning which are effective ingredients for transforming schools into learning organisations. Mental models Research by Senge et al. (1996:235-236) indicates that mental models are subjective images, deeply ingrained assumptions, generalizations and stories that people carry in their minds about themselves, other people, institutions and events that take place in the world. These mental maps act as a filtering system for our judgments and influence how we take actions based on these judgments. If these mental maps or models are not questioned they could become blockages to change. To succeed in transforming schools into learning organizations it is important that individual educators learn how to unearth their internal pictures (subjective images) of the world and bring these to the surface and critically scrutinize them. This can be done if meaningful conversations are encouraged in the school, where educators expose their own thinking patterns and also listen to other colleagues. These conversations can influence individuals to shift their thinking patterns and see the other side of the story. Shared vision A shared vision is an all-encompassing world view which provides focus for an individual and the team concerning what is to be learnt and what is to be valued (Bierema Berdish, 1996:6). This shared vision answers the question: What will success look like? This question acts as a motivating force for sustained action to achieve individual and school goals. It is a guiding image of success formed in terms of a contribution to the school. According to Johnson and Johnson (1994:9) a shared vision creates a basic sense of sink or swim together among the members of the school. A powerful vision binds educators to mutual commitments through collaboration to achieve individual and school goals. Team learning The discipline of team learning starts with dialogue, which is the capacity of members of a team to suspend their assumptions and enter into a genuine thinking together. According to Senge et al., 1996:352), team learning is the discipline that has to do with learning about alignment. Alignment means functioning as a whole or in a cohesive group committed to a common purpose. This alignment is achieved through sustained dialogue that may result in knowledge sharing and recognizing interdependencies among team members (Murgatroyd Morgan, 1993:73). The discipline of dialogue involves learning how to recognize the patterns of interaction in teams that undermine learning. The patterns of defensiveness are often deeply ingrained in how a team operates. Therefore, the impact of team learning is the establishment of shared values, vision, mission, and core strategies to achieve individual and school goals. The fifth discipline, systems thinking, incorporates the other four learning discipl ines. Systems thinking Systems thinking is based on system dynamics; it is highly conceptual and provides ways of understanding practical school issues. It looks at systems in terms of particular types of cycles and it includes explicit system modeling of complex issues. The discipline of systems thinking teaches that in any social phenomenon it is important to look at the whole picture. In systems thinking the school is looked at as a system that is interconnected to different parts of life that intersect and influence each other. These interrelated parts are bound together in such a way that they become coherent to one another (French Bell, 1995:93). The components of a school include learners, educators, context, student learning processes and any identifiable component that affects learning. Therefore, the essence of systems thinking lies in a shift of mind to one that sees:à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ interrelationships rather than linear cause-effect chains; and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ processes of change rather than sn ap shots. The discipline of systems thinking starts with understanding the concept of feedback: that is how actions can reinforce or counteract (balance) each other. In trying to build effective learning environments, educators have to learn to see the deeper patterns and interrelationships of change. Leadership Leadership is a described as being one of social sciences most examined phenomena (Antonakis, Cianciolo, Sternberg, 2004). Shoemaker (1998) suggested that leadership is difficult to characterize as the field is punctured by inconclusive definitions as to the role and function of leadership. The latest chapter in the almost 100 year history of leadership research is dominated by the development of transformational leadership theory embodied in the Full Range of Leadership Model (Antonakis, et al., 2004; Bass, 1998). This approach to leadership focuses on the charismatic and affective elements of leadership. Northouse (2004) described transformational leadership as a process that changes and transforms individuals. It is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals, and includes assessing followers motives, satisfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings (p. 169). Furthermore, as Bass (1985) advocated, by engaging in transformational leadershi p behaviors a leader transforms followers. In reality this means that followers are changed from being self-centered individuals to being committed members of a group, they are then able to perform at levels far beyond what normally might have been expected (Antonakis, et al., 2004, p.175). The model of transformational leadership includes a continuum of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire forms of leadership. Each form characterizes aspects of the dynamic process of interaction between leader and follower but identifies certain patterns and features to distinguish transformational leadership from transactional and laissez-faire styles (Avolio, 1999). The transformational leader pays particular attention to others needs, which, in turn, raises followers levels of motivation (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1998). Furthermore, a leader of this type encourages others to reach their full potential while also adopting a strong ethical characteristic. Whereas, transactional leaders, approach followers with an eye to exchanging one thing for another (Burns, 1978, p. 4), with the leaders use of either reward or punishment contingent on the followers completion or non-completion of assigned tasks. Laissez-faire leadership involves indifference and avoidance as a leader with this profile will avoid making decisions, abdicate responsibilities, divert attention from hard choices, and will talk about getting down to work, but never really does (Bass, 1998, p. 148). Senge proposes that in learning organizations the leaders new work should include a commitment to: being the organizations architect; providing stewardship; and being a teacher. For schools to become learning organizations, the schools leader(s) must accept responsibility for creating conditions that promote and enhance that learning. Principals must create opportunities for teachers to acquire information about what is occurring in the school and engage them in finding solutions to the problems that occur. A fundamental difference between the old view of leadership and that proposed by Senge is that the leader has a responsibility to create opportunities for teachers to learn about current research and apply that research in their classrooms in an environment that promotes learning. Perhaps most important of all, principals need to create a climate that promotes risk taking and eliminates the fear of failure. If these things can be done successfully schools will then possess the capacity to develop a shared vision about what needs to be done and engage in the kinds of activities that are needed to make their shared vision a reality. Organizational Culture Organizational culture has been defined from various perspectives (Carroll and Nafukho, 2006; Popper and Lipshitz, 1995; Shien, 1990; Alvesson, 2002; Cook and Yanow, 1993; Adler and Jelinek, 1996; Argris, 1999). According to Marguardt (2002), culture is an organizations values, beliefs, practices, rituals and customs. The culture of a learning organization habitually learns and works to integrate processes in all organization functions. In effect, the learning organizations culture is constantly evolving and travels along an infinite continuum in a harmonious learning environment. Ultimately, the goal is an exchange of useful knowledge leading to innovation, and improved learning public organizations. The various terms used in the context of organizational culture are: values, ethics, beliefs, ethos, climate, environmental culture. Ethics refers to normative aspects to what is socially desirable. Values, beliefs: attitudes and norms are interrelated. Interaction between beliefs and values results in attitude formation and then produces norms. Values and benefits are the core, while attitudes are the next layer, followed by the norms or behavior. Then these get institutionalized, or when they accumulate and integrate we have social phenomena. The eight important values relevant to institution building are openness, confrontation, trust, authenticity, pro-action, autonomy, collaboration and experimentation. Openness: openness can be defined as a spontaneous expression of feeling and thoughts, and the sharing of these without defensiveness. Openness is in both directions, receiving and giving. Both these may relate to ideas (including suggestions, feedback (including criticism), and feelings. For example, openness means receiving without reservation, and taking steps to encourage more feedbacks and suggestions from customers, colleagues and others. Similarly, it means giving without hesitation, ideas, information, feedback, feelings, etc. openness may also mean spatial openness, in terms of accessibility. Confrontation: confrontation can be defined as facing rather than shying away from problems. It also implies deeper analysis of interpersonal problems. All this involves taking up challenges. Trust: trust is not used in the moral sense. It is reflected in maintaining the confidentiality of information shared by others, and in not misusing it. It is also reflected in a sense of a assurance that others will help, when such help is needed and will honor mutual commitments and obligations. Trust is also reflected in accepting what another person says at face value, and not searching for ulterior motives. Trust is an extremely important ingredient in the institution building processes. Authenticity: authenticity is the congruence between what one feels, says and does. It is reflected in owning up ones mistakes, and in unreserved sharing of feelings. Authenticity is closer to openness. The outcome of authenticity in an organization is reduced distortion in communication. Pro-action: pro-action means taking initiative, preplanning and taking preventive action, and calculating the payoffs of an alternative course before taking action. The term pro-act can be contrasted with the term react. Pro-activity gives initiative to the person to start a new process or set a new pattern of behavior. Pro-activity involves unusual behavior. In this sense pro-activity means freeing oneself from, and taking action beyond immediate concerns. A person showing pro-activity functions at all the three levels of feeling, thinking and action. Autonomy: Autonomy is using and giving freedom to plan and act in ones own sphere. It means respecting and encouraging individual and role autonomy. It develops mutual respect and is likely to result in willingness to take on responsibility, individual initiative, better succession planning. The main indicator of autonomy is effective delegation in organization and reduction in references made to senior people for approval of planned actions. Collaboration: Collaboration is giving help to, and asking for help from, others. It means working together (individuals and groups to solve problems and team spirit. The outcome of collaboration includes timely help, team work, sharing of experiences, improved communication and improved resource sharing. Experimenting: Experimenting means using and encouraging innovative approaches to solve problems, using feedbacks for improving, taking a fresh look at things and encouraging creativity. Personal Commitment Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979, p. 226), defined commitment as the relative strength of an individuals identification with, and involvement in a particular organization. Although many definitions of commitment have been presented since the seminal work of Mowday et al. (1979), it is the conception of Meyer and Allen (1991), which identifies three distinctive dimensions affective, normative, and continuance that has been the cornerstone of extant theorizing in the area of commitment (Herrbach, 2006). Mowday, Porter and Steers (1982) Model Commitment (Attitudinal Commitment), to an organization involves three components: (a) a strong belief in and acceptance of organizational goals and values, (b) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and (c) a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization (Mowday et al., 1982). Research on organizational commitment has been examined primarily in relation to labour turnover (Ferris Aranya, 1983; Hom, Katerberg Hulin, 1979; Huselid Day, 1991; Mowday, Steers Porter, 1979; OReilly Caldwell, 1980; Wiener Vardi, 1980; Steers, 1977; Stumpf Hartman, 1984). Meyer and Allen (1997) Model Meyer and Allen (1997) view organizational commitment as a three component concept. The three components in their model are Affective, Continuous, and Normative. The affective commitment describes the emotional attachment an individual has with the organization, their identification with the goals and values of the organization and the level of their involvement (Zanagro, 2001). Affective commitment is taken as a construct closely related to identification (Bergami Bagozzi, 2000). Continuance commitment is based on the cost that an employee associates with leaving the organizations, such as reduction in pay, pension, benefits, or facilities (Herbiniak Alluto, 1972). Normative commitment is associated with employees feelings of obligation to continue employment due to the work culture and other socially accepted norms (Weiner Gechman, 1977). The less common approach to viewing commitment is in terms of obligation. Of the three components least is known about the development of norm ative commitment (Meyer Allen, 1997). The three dimensions highlight commitment from the perspectives of attachment, obligation, and necessity respectively. From the above conceptual framework, a model is drawn for better understanding. Organizational Culture Openness Confrontation Trust Authenticity Proaction Autonomy Collaboration Experimentation Leadership Transformational Transactional Laissez-Faire Personal Commitment Own Development Student Institutional Development Learning Organization Personal Mastery Mental Models Shared Vision Team Learning Systems Thinking Review of Literature Schools as Learning Organization Bowen et.al., 2007-Assessing the Functioning of Schools as Learning Organizations: Using data from the population of employees in 11 middle schools in North Carolina and building on an earlier analysis, this study examines the reliability and validity of a new assessment tool for assessing schools as learning organizations: the School Success Profile Learning Organization. The results align with the conceptual model that informed the development of the measure, including support for the two hypothesized learning organization components: actions and sentiments. Kelleher Michael, 2007 Learning Organization: The author designed a model for a learning organization: The model of the learning organization, with its three dimensional approach, proposes strategies within the domains of individual, team and organizational learning. He concluded by saying if lifelong learning is to become a reality, it will become increasingly important to ensure that strategies and actions support the development of learning organizations. If overlooked, the world of work could well be that area of peoples lives where learning is not explicit, supported and developed. Moloi K.C..et al., 2006 Educators perceptions of the school as a learning organization in the Vanderbijlpark-North District, South Africa: This article outlines the principal findings of research that sought to provide a comprehensive understanding of schools as learning organizations in the Vanderbijl Park-North District of the Gauteng province of South Africa. The quantitative research methodology used was of major importance in obtaining data that were grounded largely on the theoretical framework of learning organizations as wel

Acid Rain :: essays research papers fc

Acid Rain and its Effects On Our Aquatic Ecosystems In the past century, one of the greatest threats to North America's aquatic ecosystem has been the widespread acidification of hundreds of thousands of waterways. Acid rain has effected plant and animal life within aquatic ecosystems, as well as microbiologic activity by affecting the rates of decomposition and the accumulation of organic matter. What causes this poisonous rain, and what can be done to improve North America's water quality and prevent future catastrophes? To answer these questions, we must first examine the cause and formation of acid rain, as well as understand ways to decrease or prevent its formation. Formation of acid rain. Acid deposition, more commonly known as acid rain, occurs when emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and oxidants to form acidic compounds. This mixture forms a mild solution of sulfuric and nitric acid which then falls to the earth in either wet (rain, snow, sleet or fog) or dry (gas and particles) form. Approximately one-half of the atmosphere's acidity falls back to earth through dry deposition in the form of particles and gases, and are then spread hundreds of miles by winds where they settle on surfaces of buildings, cars, homes, and trees. When acid rain falls, the dry deposited gases and particles are sometimes washed from buildings, trees and other surfaces making the runoff water combine with the acid rain more acidic than the falling acid rain alone. This new combination is referred to as acid deposition. The runoff water is then transported by strong prevailing winds and public sewer systems into lakes and s treams. Although some natural sources such as volcanic eruptions, fire and lightening contribute to the emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, more than 90% is the result of human activities such as coal burning, smelting of metals such as zinc, nickel and copper, and the burning of oil, coal and gas in power plants and automobiles. When does rain become acidic? Scientists determine whether rain or lake water is acidic by measuring its pH (the measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution on a scale of 0 to 14). A value of 7 is considered neutral, whereas values less than 7 are acidic and values over 7 are alkaline or basic. A change of one unit on the pH scale represents a factor of ten in acidity; for example, a solution with a pH of five is ten times as acid as one with a pH of six .

Persuasive Essay: The Holocaust :: Persuasive Writing

My reaction to the Holocaust was devastating. It is one example of bad things happening to good people. The mass murdering of so many Jews is just disgusting and also because it was done for basically no reason. As this was a true event many sources or witnesses are available to express their views, feelings and emotions of themselves and those who survived this terrible tragedy. I will demonstrate examples of Jews who have survived what they have been through and what they think about God. It is really hard to go through all of this and still believe that God exists. The holocaust should not change our theology on God. It is said to be that the Holocaust was a temporary "Eclipse of God".[1] This is supposed to be when God is away from earth beyond any reason or explanation. People trying to respond to this problem of believing that there is a God after witnessing the terrible event have either succeeded or failed. I will introduce three people who have survived the Holocaust and have tried responding to this problem. The three people included are Primo Levi, Richard Rubenstein and Emil Fackenheim. I think a big impact on the life of Jews would be their belief in God because many of them have tried responding to this problem and have changed the ways in which they think about him, their views on how good or powerful he is, how they express him and why they still believe in him. I will introduce the problem of evil to the Jews that have survived the Holocaust and their problems of belief. I will also say which of the three Jews the most are convincing to me. The holocaust presents a problem for the Jews and changes their belief in God because now some Jews think "God is Dead" [2] Their reason to thinking this is because God is supposed to be omnipotent and almighty he could not have let something like this to happen. If there was a God, surely this event would not have taken place.

HND Business Human resource management Essay

Personnel Management Personnel Management is essentially an administrative record-keeping function, at the ground level. Personnel Management professionally manages employee’s activities for individual departments for example in Bhs you will have a personal manger for customer services. It is assumed that the outcomes from providing justice and achieving efficiency in the management of personnel activities will result ultimately in achieving organizational success. Human Resource Development – Human resource management is concerned with the Training, promotion development and implementation of people strategies, which are incorporated with business strategies, and guarantees that the culture, values and structure of the organization, and the quality, incentives and commitment of its members contribute fully to the achievement of its goals. Human Resources Management is focused with carrying such task as, job analysis, recruitment and selection, employee relations, performance management, employee appraisals, compensation management, training and development. But, the Human Resources method performs these functions in distinct way, when compared with Personnel management. Personnel management is about the continuance of personnel and administrative systems, Human Resources Management is about the anticipation of organizational needs, the continual monitoring and adjustment of personnel systems to meet current and future requirements, and the management of change. Differences between Personnel management and Human Resources management Personnel management is more workforces focused, aimed mainly at the organization’s employees; such as, arranging for them to be paid, and justifying management’s actions etc. Whereas, Human Resources management is more resource centered, Personnel Management is fundamentally an operational function, concerned principally with carrying out the day to day people management activities. While on the other hand, Human Resources Management is strategic in nature, that is, being concerned with directly assisting an organization to gain competitive advantage. HRM is a more strategic and proactive form whereas personnel management is a reactive. Human Resources Management has been considered as the strategic and logical approach to the management of an organization’s most valued. The personnel management has functions which are conventional and systematic whereas HRM deals with innovative ideas and are committed to enforcing better business conditions. Personnel management has evolved from being an independent function of the company to human recourses management which is an integral part of the company. 20 Points of Difference between Personnel Management & HRD Dimension Personnel Management Human Resource Development Beliefs & Assumptions 1. Contract Careful delineation of written contracts Aim to go ‘beyond contracts’ 2. Rules Importance of devising clear rules ‘Can-do’ outlook; impatience with ‘rule’ 3. Guide to management Action Procedures Business – need 4. Behaviour Referent custom & practice Values/Mission 5. Managerial Task vis-à  -vis Labour Monitoring Nurturing 6. Conflict Institutionalized De-emphasized STRATEGIC ASPECTS 7. Key Relations Labour Management Customer 8. Corporate Plan Marginal to Central to 9. Speed of Decision Slow Fast LINE MANAGEMENT 10. Management Role Transactional Transformational leadership 11. Key Managers Personnel/IR Specialists General/business/line managers 12. Communication Indirect Direct 13. Standardisation High (e.g. ‘parity’ an issue) Low (e.g. ‘parity’ not seen as relevant) 14. Prized management skills Negotiation Facilitation KEY LEVERS 15. Selection Separate, marginal task Integrated, key task 16. Pay Job Evaluation (fixed grades) Performance – related 17. Labour Management Collective bargaining contracts Towards individual contracts 18. Job categories & grades Many Few 19. Communication Restricted flow Increased flow 20. Job Design Division of Labour Teamwork AC1.2 The Role of Human Resource Management in Organizations Managers in the Human Resources profession have the essential job of organizing people so that they can effectively perform their job description. Human resources professionals work together to develop employees’ skills. For example, HR professionals advise managers and supervisors how to assign employees to different roles in the organization, thereby helping the organization adapt successfully to its environment. In a flexible organization, employees are shifted around to different business functions based on business priorities and employee preferences. Human resources professionals also suggest strategies for increasing employee commitment to the organization. This begins with using the recruiting process or matching employees with the right positions according to their qualifications. Human resources management team helps a business develop a competitive advantage, which involves building the ability of the company so it can offer a unique set of goods or services to its customers. They can do this by hiring the right individuals but it’s not just about hiring talent; it is about keeping people and helping them grow and stay committed over the long term. The Human resources team has to identify needs of the employees regarding career goals and work upon them to make the employees feel important and motivated by providing them with training related to their field of interest. If the employee does not feel their skills are being utilized fully towards performing their duties they will start to underperform due to lack of motivation. Human resources duties also concern understanding and defining the overall objectives of the organization, its mission as well as vision. It does not only include the present organization requirements but also forecasting the future needs and making strategies for fulfilling them. Human resources team is also responsible for ensuring the availability for  training the employees. Human resources management team understand that if the employees are properly trained and developed, it can prove to be the best investment made by the company which will definitely furnish quality returns in future. Human resourc es team is responsible for selecting the best workforce from the prospective employees by using the recruitment options like, Personal interviews and group interviews Trial etc. Human resources team is responsible for ensuring employee health and safety by abiding to the employee health and safety regulations and managing grievances and ensuring provisions benefits to keep employees motivated. Human resources team keep a record of the employee profiles and database so that it can be readily available at the time of recruitment and staffing and also ensuring its confidentiality. AC1.3 The role of line managers in HR Resource The Line managers are managers to whom individual or teams of employees directly report to and who have responsibility to a higher level of management for those employees or teams. Line Managers are authorized to direct the work of subordinates and are responsible for accomplishing the organization’s tasks. Typically the management responsibilities carried out by line managers might include: Employee management Managing operational costs Providing technical expertise Organisation of work allocation and rotas Monitoring work processes Checking quality Dealing with customers/clients Measuring operational performance. Line managers also carry out activities that such as providing coaching and guidance, undertaking performance appraisals and dealing with discipline and grievances. Line Managers are responsible for: ensuring that any staff  experiencing performance difficulties are managed appropriately and working with the employee to identify measures that could be used to improve performance. Ensuring the staff member has a full understanding of the consequences of not improving, Setting realistic and measurable standards of performance and an action plan incorporating targets, standards, deadlines. Line managers manage operational functions that are crucial for the company’s survival. Line Manager Responsibility 1. Ensuring that any staff experiencing performance difficulties are managed appropriately 2. Ensuring the staff member has a full understanding of the consequences of not improving 3. Placing the right employee on the right job 4. Starting new employees in the organization 5. Training employees for jobs that are new to them 6. Improving the job performance of each person 1.4 Impact of the legal and regulatory framework on HRM British legislations have employment laws, affecting topics such as employee criminal record checks, preventing offenders from working in certain professions these legislations are supposed to protect vulnerable people like children or stop unwonted people from obtaining the job. National minimum wage Act was brought into force to ensure that employees are getting a fair wage in relation to their work. Wage and Hourly rates The national minimum wage establishes the amount of the minimum wage an employee receives per hour. Human resources managers should continuously verify the accuracy of the amount paid to employees Race Relations Act 1976 Prevents discrimination because of race in employment. The impact this has in the workplace is a Varity of different cultural backgrounds in the work place and this can have a really positive effect if managed effectively Anti-discrimination Sex Discrimination Act 1975 Protects men and women from discrimination because of sex in the workplace, this legislation is about equal opportunities in the work place across the sexes men and women in the workplace should be treated equally. Disability Discrimination Act 1995 Prevents discrimination against people because of disabilities in employment. The impact this Act will have in the workplace would be there would be a few more disabled individuals in the workplace which will benefit the economy. Equal Pay Act (1970) Aspect of the Sex Discrimination Law Gives the right for men and women to be paid the same rate of pay, for the same, or equivalent, work Gives individuals the right to the same pay and benefits as a person of the opposite sex in the same employment where the man and woman are doing; 1. Same grade work 2. Work rated as equivalent under a job evaluation study 3. Work that is proved to be of equal value Developing policies Human resources develop policies to make sure that managers and employees are aware of how these legal restrictions and how to deal with potential violations AC 4.1 There are many reasons for termination. Employee termination also can be voluntary, when an employee decides to leave a company for some reason. Reasons can include unacceptable performance or as a result of a change in business conditions for example a recession. Termination with just cause In law, termination with just cause means that an action or error by the employee has irreparably damaged the employment relationship between the  employer and the employee. Usually, termination with cause occurs when an employee is dismissed for a serious reason related to the employee’s conduct. There are seven main Examples of misconduct. 1. Theft and dishonesty 2. Violence 3. Drug and alcohol abuse 4. Breach of confidence 5. Insubordination 6. Absenteeism 7. Misconduct outside of the workplace Some common grounds used in termination with cause are: 1. Fraudulence – stealing or fraud by the employee that is serious enough to authorise dismissal from organisation. 2. Noncompliance – an employee frequently breaks organizational policies and discipline has not resulted in a change in behaviour 3. Incompetence – an employee is incompetent at their job and performance has not improved even though the employee has been given the direction, foundations, training and time needed to improve. Incompetent Job Performance Employee’s contracts may get cut because the person is unable to perform some or all of the necessary aspects of the job. Before dismissal the employer, should point out their deficiencies during a performance evaluation and provide counselling to help her improve. If they show little or no improvement, consider moving them to a more suitable position, if possible. When employees are hired to work for a company, they are given a job description that outlines the duties they’re expected to fulfill. When employees fall short in achieving their goals, managers are faced with deciding whether or not an employee’s performance warrants his termination. Poor performance can include everything from not hitting target sales goals and overlooking project details to not missing deadlines. Employees may also be terminated because they lack the knowledge and skills needed to fulfill assigned tasks. Business Conditions Unfavourable business conditions may force you to lay off employees for economic reasons as opposed to poor performance. The layoff may be permanent, or the employee may be called back to work if business conditions improve Merger/Buyout A merger or a buy-out usually requires changes within the Company’s’ structure, which might affect employment. Although the employer is not legally required to do so, some employers offer a severance package to employees terminated under these circumstances. Layoffs if there is a lack of work, or the company is undergoing financial problems the company might lay off employees. The employer must ensure the layoff is fair and legal. Employers must give employees advance notice of closings and mass layoffs. This gives the employees and their families’ time to adjust to loss of employment and to seek alternative support. Unacceptable Behaviours / for cause You may need to fire an employee due to unacceptable behaviour; actions can include stealing company property, or verbally or physically threatening another employee. The employee may also display a pattern of disrespectful or insubordinate behaviour directed toward you or your supervisors that results in a disruption of your work environment. Absenteeism An employee who misses work frequently or is habitually late negatively affects your business’s productivity and can place an unfair burden on your other workers. Chronic absenteeism could be a sign that the employee is dealing with job dissatisfaction. Voluntary redundancy In a voluntary termination, an employee hands in their notice from their job. Reasons for resignations have that included: a new job, returning to full time education, and retirement. If a contract isn’t renewed This is considered to be a dismissal, and if the employee has 2 years’ service the employer needs to show that there’s a reasonable reason for not renewing the contract Workers have the right: not to be unfairly dismissed after two years’ Dismissal when your employer ends your employment – they don’t always have to give you notice. If you’re dismissed, your employer must show they have a valid reason that they can justify and also that they have acted reasonably in the circumstances They must also: be consistent – not dismiss you for doing something that they let other employees do Fair and unfair dismissal A dismissal is fair or unfair depending on the reason for it and how the employer acted during the dismissal process. Constructive dismissal This is when an employee resigns because you’ve breached their employment contract. This could be a single serious event or a series of less serious events. An employee could claim constructive dismissal if you: cut their wages without agreement unlawfully demote them allow them to be harassed, bullied or discriminated against Wrongful dismissal This is where you break the terms of an employee’s contract in the dismissal process, eg dismissing someone without giving them proper notice. AC 4.2 describe the employment exit procedures used by two organisations The exit procedures of ASDA Step One, Resignation handed to personnel manager Step Two Personal manager informs human resources department. Step Three Employee has to return the companies possession of equipment and supplies. Human Resources team is responsible for initiating and following through  with the exit process. If the resignation is voluntary HRM invites employee to attend an exit Interview to gather information and improve quality of work life at the organization. The secondary reason is to provide closure to the separating employee The exit interview Primary Purpose is to gather information to improve employee relations practices Spot developing trends Identify areas of weakness Identify areas of strength Exit interviews are also used to understand, and try to identify patterns in, reasons for resignation they are conducted face -to-face, by telephone, or as a survey. Focus is on reasons for leaving, reflections on the positive and negative aspects of the organization, level of satisfaction with various aspects of the organization. Processing a Resignation NHS West Midlands Step one The Line Manager gives notice to the Human Resources department upon receipt of a resignation. Step two the Line Manager recognizes resignation in writing and forwards the letter of resignation to the Human Resources department. Step Three Line Manager forwards confirmation of employee’s last working day and details of any other relevant information to the Human Resources department. The Human Resources department prepares a Termination Form on the basis of the information provided by the Line Manager and ensures it is forwarded to the Payroll department in time to meet the monthly deadline Step Four the Human Resources Department writes to the employee offering them An exit Interview and enclosing an exit Interview Questionnaire for them to Complete in preparation for the interview. The Human Resources Department forwards the Line Manager a confirmation of Service Proforma to complete and return.   The completed proforma will be retained on the employee’s personnel file and will provide the basis for any employment references given by the Board Interview is conducted by an appropriate member of the Human Resources team. All information collected remains confidential and is stored in line with the Data Protection Act 1998. 4.3 AC 2.1 analyse the reasons for human resource planning in organisations Human Resource (HR) Planning is the practice of determining and analyzing the requirement for and supply of workforce in order to achieve the organization’s goals and objectives, fulfill its mission and reach its vision (Mathis & Jackson, 2000). Human resource department know that planning is of paramount of importance to achieving an organizations objective. This part of my assignment will discuss the importance of HR planning and the six steps of HR planning which consist of: 1. Forecasting; 2. inventory audit, 3. HR Resource Plan; 4. Implementation of Plan; 5. Monitoring 6. Control. HR Planning involves gathering information, making objectives, and making decisions to enable the organization achieve its objectives types of questions HRM may consider 1. How many staff does the Organization have? 2. What type of employees as far as skills and abilities does the Company have? 3. How should the Organization best utilize the available resources? 4. How can the Company keep its employees? The most important reason why HR Planning should be managed and implemented is the costs involved. Because costs forms an important part of any Organizations budget. Whenever there are staff shortages, the organization should be in a position to utilize the skills of employees available more readily. HRM planning determines future employment needs by analyzing current business conditions and current trends within the business, for example over the Christmas period most big high street retailers will employ more short term staff because the demand for goods over the Christmas period. Identifying these trends and planning for them will let the business be in a more positive position to be conducting business. HRP is also concerned with employee turnover within the business as management needs the right employees at the right place to make a profit and benefit the organization. (2.2) Steps in HR Planning Forecasting HR Planning requires that we gather data on the Organizational goals objectives. One should understand where the Organization wants to go and how it wants to get to that point. The needs of the employees are derived from the corporate objectives of the Organization. They stern from shorter and medium term objectives Therefore, the HR Plan should have a mechanism to express planned Company strategies into planned results and budgets so that these can be converted in terms of numbers and skills required. Inventory After knowing what human resources are required in the Organization, the next step is to take stock of the current employees in the Organization. The HR inventory should not only relate to data concerning numbers, ages, but also an analysis of individuals and skills. Skills inventory provides valid information on professional and technical skills and other qualifications provided in the firm. It reveals what skills are immediately available when compared to the forecasted HR requirements. Audit HR inventory calls for collection of data; the HR audit requires systematic examination and analysis of this data. The Audit looks at what had occurred in the past and at present in terms of labor turn over, age and sex groupings, training costs and absence. Based on this information, one can then be able to predict what will happen to HR in the future in the Organization. HR resource plan Here we look at career Planning and HR plans. People are the greatest asserts in any Organization. The Organization is at liberty to develop its staff at full pace in the way ideally suited to their individual capacities. The main reason is that the Organization’s objectives should be aligned as near as possible, or matched, in order to give optimum scope for the developing potential of its employees. Therefore, career planning may also be referred to as HR Planning or succession planning. The questions that should concern us are: a) Are we making use of the available talent we have in the Organization? b) Are employees satisfied with our care of their growth in terms of advancing their career? Actioning of Plan There are three fundamentals necessary for this first step. 1) Know where you are going. 2) There must be acceptance and backing from top management for the planning. 3) There must be knowledge of the available resources Monitoring and Control. This is the last stage of HR planning in the Organization. Once the programme has been accepted and implementation launched, it has to be controlled. HR department has to make a follow up to see what is happening in terms of the available resources. The idea is to make sure that we make use of all the available talents that are at our disposal failure of which we continue to  struggle to get to the top. 2.3 Recruitment and selection process. Recruitment is the process of approximating the available vacancies and making suitable arrangements for their selection and appointment. Recruitment is understood as the process of searching for and obtaining applicants for the jobs, from among whom the right people can be selected. The result is a few eligible applicants from which new employees are selected The difference between recruitment and selection: Recruitment is identifying and encouraging potential employees to apply for a job. And Selection is selecting the right candidate from the collection of applicants. Goals of selection are to select a candidate that will be successful in performing the tasks and meeting the responsibilities of the position. Selection process Selection process involves a number of steps. The basic ideais to solicit maximum possible information about thecandidates to ascertain their suitability for employment 1).Screening of Applications Prospective employees have to fill in some sort of application forms. These forms have information about the applicants like their achievements, experience. 2) Selection Tests Selection tests to know more about the candidates or to reject the candidates who cannot be called for interview. 4) Interview The basic idea here is to find out overall suitability of candidates for the jobs. It also provides opportunity to give relevant information about the organization to the candidates 5) Approval by appropriate Authority Suitable candidates are recommended for selection by the selection committee or personnel department. Functional heads concerned may be approving authority. When the approval is received, the candidates are informed about their selection and asked to report for duty to specified persons. 6) Placement After all the formalities are completed, the candidates are placed on their jobs initially on probation period may range from three months to two years. During this period, they are observed keenly, and when they complete this period successfully, they become the permanent employees of the organization. Recruitment and selection process at Tata Having received the applications, the next step is to evaluate applicants experience and qualifications and make a selection. Screening purpose is to evaluate the application and eliminate applicants whose profiles do not match the job requirements, Short-listing of CVs received from various sources are screened by the HR function within a week of commencement of sourcing activity. Knowledge and aptitude test is conducted for all trainees and laterals recruits. The result of test will be criteria for short listing /screening candidates for the purpose of interview. Psychometric Test is done to find out the â€Å"CRISP† fit. While hiring at Tata, they look for the following attributes C – Customer Focus R – Result Orientation I – Initiative and Speed S – Self Confidence P – Passion for achievement Interview This is powerful technique used to assess the capabilities/skills of the candidate and to understand the softer aspects that a difficult to measure from resumes. After finalizing a date and time, short-listed candidates are invited for an interview Selection Process and interviews for Tata motor cars Duration of written/online tests and interviews 1) Aptitude Test 0-30 Minutes Aptitude Test 2) Technical Test 30-60 Minutes Technical Written 3) Psychometric Test 4) Group Discussion 5) HR Interview 0-30 Minutes HR Interview 6) Technical Interview 0-30 Minutes Technical Interview Technical subjects to study for written test Theory of Machines, Automobile engineering, Fluid Dynamics and Machinery. The Psychometric test questions the test the way you handle situations under different circumstances. Recruitment at Asda Phase one Applications are registered through Asda’s online recruitment system, Asda’s HR team then shortlist appropriate candidates for interview or an assessment centre. Two documents are vital here: a job description and a personal specification. These inform applicants and help managers select the candidates that best match the requirements for the position. Step two attend the assessment centre known as either ‘Asda Reality’ this provides an opportunity for candidates to demonstrate their strengths which align to Asda’s culture, beliefs and way of working. Step three interview  once selected, the final part of the recruitment process involves providing appropriate training. At Asda, each new colleague is put into a specific training plan designed for their role. (2.4) The first phase of recruitment at Asda is automated you can upload your curriculum vitae and edit your personal details on line, this way it makes it simper for the recruiters to narrow down the employees they would like. Asda’s online recruitment process has improved the speed and efficiency of recruitment, making applications easier for candidates and selection faster for management. On the second phase is really about meeting your potential employer and selling your skills and experience to see if you could fit in with the organisations overall vision. The recruitment and selection at Tata is far more complicated than that at Asda this is because of the more highly skilled aspects of the work. Phase one is based on receiving applications for the vacant position. Phase two evaluate applicants experience and qualifications and make a selection. Screening purpose is to evaluate the application and eliminate applicants, whose profiles do not match the job requirements, Phase three are tests to test the competence of potential employees theses test consist of technical and written aspects Phase four is the Human resources interview and phase five is the technical interview. L03 Appraisals and rewards system at Tata Motors are based on key results area. There are reviews at regular intervals, promotions are based on performance, and productivity and rewards comes in the form of profit linked incentives schemes. Positive appraisals can affect your career pathway with fast track options for high performers and interviews for positions above manager’s positions. Tata motor company employees have appraisals twice a year whereby employees get feedback which gives them a chance to look at their approach of working, The necessary steps are also undertaken for employees who deviate from their goals Tata motors have introduced a comprehensive system of quarterly appraisals whereby each employee selects their own key results areas or goals and every quarter they have the chance to go back and asses their own performance against the parameters. For many front line employees these performance related quarterly payouts designed to reward them with incentives for their performance. Tata Motors have midterm reviews for all employees that have had positive appraisals creating an expectation of a salary rise twice a year if they perform well. At Tata employees and supervisors can set up joint participations goals this method often leads to employee commitment along with smart goals Specific – precise and detailed Measurable – with criteria for determing progress and success Achievable – attainable Realistic – Relevant Time related – Grounded in a time frame This system is commonly known as 90 degree appraisal system. Performance rating Process at Tata Motors Exceptional contributor Significant contributor Performs consistently and substancly above all exceptions in all areas Performs exceptionally well in all areas. Achieves a final score of greater than or equal to 115% Achieves final score between 100-114% Consistently delivers on stretch targets Versatile in their area Proactive Little or no supervision Spots and anticipates problems, implements solutions Sets examples for others Sees and exploits opportunities. Take ownership of own development Delivers ahead of time Coaches other Sees wider impact across business Demonstrates business initiative Focuses on what’s good for the business Self motivated Herzberg motivation theory Frederick Herzberg in 1966 came up with a theory that job motivators were closely connected to job And the motivator’s appeared to produce motivated behavior whereas hygiene factors produced dissatisfaction From the way Tata motors conducts its appraisals and gives incentives I can see they firmly believe in some key points Herzberg mentioned in 1966 regarding Achievement, recognition, advancement and growth, giving employees with good appraisal reports promotions and pay rises will motivate employees and lead to extreme job satisfaction Factors leading to extreme dissatisfaction Hygiene Factors Factors leading to extreme satisfaction Motivators Company-policy & administration Achievement Supervision Recognition Relationship with supervisor Work itself Work conditions Responsibility Salary Advancement Relationship with peers Growth Personal life Relationship with subordinates Status Security Asda used 360 degree feedbacks for appraisal in this process employees are assessed based personal and professional skill sets, customer service and multitasking skills to see if they can perform multiple tasks under pressure. For slightly senior employees they consider coaching skills to be an essential part of leadership skills. In this process they judge how a person can train the subordinates. Apart from that it also judges the counseling skills of the people that help them in guiding the subordinates in expanding responsibility and capacity and delegate work according to their individual potential. Asda has redesigned 360 degree program to develop the employee performance through the process like Individual bonus, program The individual bonus factor is used to promote the best employee from their performance. This process aims the organisational objectives through the employee performance. As the Result of this process, the employee survey conducted in ASDA that shows the individual bonus process will be a great success through the high level of employee commitments and improvements through the self-motivation. In 1911 the engineer Frederick Taylor published one of the earliest motivational theories. According to Taylor ´s research, people worked purely for money this approach of paying workers by results was good for the business. The outcome was greater production but gave little opportunity, encouragement or time for employees to think for themselves or be creative in what they did. This limited people’s development and their use within the company Peer recognition Peer recognition is the modern performance appraisal process also includes in the 360 degree process. This process is to award and acknowledge an individual for their outstanding performance in the company. This would be could be more non-financial factors based which can motivate employees to improve their output. One such factor may be the desire to serve people; others may be to improve personal skills or achieve promotion. Employees  are more motivated if they feel content in their work. This often happens when their employer creates a good working environment where employees feel valued, generally through increased communication and being asked for their opinions. Employee motivation is also likely to be higher if the organisation invests in its staff through training and development. In turn this enhances their knowledge, skills and their sense of job satisfaction. Positive and negative reinforcement plays a vital role in motivation in the work place in the form of 1. Praise for good work 2. Encouragement 3. Constructive criticism The organisations leader should always communicate the organisations culture, values and beliefs to the group members. Performance feed back Team leaders should constantly provide feedback to members on: 1. How they are doing in their task and in the team 2. How results are progressing in comparison to plans and standards set out for them Feed back is essential both for motivational and for learning and development to adjust performance and bring it back in line where necessary to the original plan. The manager should motivate his or her team, both individually and collectively so that a productive work place is maintained and developed and at the same time employees derive satisfaction from their jobs. . References Phillip, Harris. Managing the Knowledge Culture. Human Resource Development Press, March 2005. Johnston, John. Time to Rebuild Human Resources. Business Quarterly. Winter 1996. Mathis, Robert L., and John H. Jackson. Human Resource Management. Thomson South-Western, 2005 Ulrich, Dave. Delivering Results: A New Mandate for HR Professionals. Harvard Business School Press, 1998. Gary, Dessler. Human resource management, Eleventh Edition 2005 Subba, rao. Essentials of HR Management and Industrial Relations, Fourth Edition 2007